Daniel

DANIEL

The Work. What we read today as the Book of Daniel is a complex and unique part of the Old Testament. Beginning with the language, we encounter several chapters written in Hebrew that reflect classic texts. Some chapters are in Aramaic, and others are in Greek. It is a trilingual work.
It is easy to identify the Greek fragments as later additions, either written in this language or translated from an original Semitic text. However, explaining the mixture of Hebrew and Aramaic is difficult. It is more plausible to suggest that the texts were initially written in Hebrew, with some sections translated into Aramaic, the common language of the time.
The distribution of forms and themes does not match the division of languages. We identify three main types: narrative episodes featuring Daniel and his companions as protagonists, a series of visions of Daniel explained by an angel, two long prayers, and several shorter ones. The narratives are in Hebrew (1), Aramaic (2–6), and Greek (13–14); visions are presented in Aramaic (7) and Hebrew (8–12); the long prayers are in Greek (3:24-90), while the shorter prayers are in their respective languages.

Author. The figure of Daniel—meaning “God is my judge” in Hebrew—sometimes appears in the third person (1-6) and sometimes in the first person (8-12), implying he is the author. In chapter 7, the perspective shifts from third to first person. Throughout the stories, he is depicted as a fortuneteller, chief of wizards (4:5; 5:10-12), and a politician or royal administrator (2:48; 6:3-4; 8:27).
It appears that in ancient times, there was a person named Daniel, known for his kindness and wisdom (Ezk 14:14, 20; 28:3). Outside of the Bible, he is referred to as “Dnil” in the Ugaritic poem of Aqhat. Was there a similar person with the same name during the exile? We cannot be certain. What is clear is that Daniel became legendary and well-known; therefore, he was chosen as the main character of this work. Using a pseudonym is common in the apocalyptic genre, with examples including the Apocalypses of Enoch, Moses, Isaiah, and Baruch, among others.

Epoch. The book was written during the persecution under Antiochus IV (175-163 B.C.), specifically after 167 B.C. and before his death. Due to religious oppression and internal conflicts, the Jews faced a severe crisis. The author aims to uplift their spirits and hope. He does this through a fictionalized and exalted character within a new literary genre known as apocalyptic literature.
Some believe that chapters 1–6 were written at the end of the Persian period or the start of the Hellenistic period, which is in the second half of the 4th century B.C. However, the Greek additions do not provide a definitive date due to their fictitious or fantastic nature.

Apocalyptic Genre. With the Book of Daniel, a new literary genre—the apocalyptic—entered the Old Testament. The book was included in the Jewish canon of Scriptures, but not as a prophetic book. Thus, the series concluded, yet a vague and inclusive concept remained within the “writings.” Daniel is the only apocalyptic work among many that is considered inspired by God. In the Greek and Latin versions, as well as within the Christian tradition, Daniel is recognized as one of the four “major prophets.”
Apocalyptic is the successor to prophecy. It appears after prophecy has been silenced (“now we see no signs, we have no prophets, no one knows how long” Ps 74:9) and aims to continue its mission.
During moments of crisis, apocalyptic writings offer hope: tribulation is ending, and the Lord will act quickly and decisively. At times, they present a current vision of prophecy.

Theme. The book’s theme centers on the drama of history. Empires and reigns rise and fall, making way for new ones to emerge. Sovereigns and emperors serve as protagonists; however, history is shaped by God and moves toward an abrupt ending, which the seer foresees and the interpreter explains. The dramatic shift from one empire to the following hints at the ultimate transformation: the restoration of the final and universal reign of the Lord of history, where passive and suffering subjects—the “chosen and consecrated ones”—will take center stage with new power granted by God. What follows is foretold but not detailed.
Narrative fiction and allegory are the primary methods employed in the genre and the book. The author sketches the past broadly, stylizes it, and presents it as a prophecy. He creates a historical figure and gives him an illustrious name. Then, he puts the history into his words to predict the future. Allegory also secretly conveys dangerous political messages.
The author of 2–7 has been genial in using allegory. With an allegorical function, he skillfully created many influential figures that enriched art and Western thought: the statue of various materials, the emperor transformed into a beast, the feast of Balthazar, the youth in the furnace, Daniel in the den of lions, the four beasts with the old man, and the human figure. How many writers can showcase the same repertoire? These symbols have outlived the author’s expected failures thanks to his imaginative vigor. They are detached from their allegorical contexts and have begun a new life as tools for interpreting history.

Daniel and the New Testament. Three central doctrines have shaped the New Testament in different ways: angelology, which includes the specific names of Michael and Gabriel (found in Luke, Jude, and Revelation); the doctrine of resurrection and retribution in the afterlife; and the “human figure” from chapter 7, which, due to a mistranslation, was changed to a transcendent “Son of Man,” linked to the foretold parousia.
Mark 13:14 and Matthew 24:15 also mention the “abominable idol” referenced in Daniel 9:27 and 12:11; Mark 13:19 and Matthew 24:21 quote Daniel 12:1 verbatim. Finally, 1 Corinthians 6:2 seems to be derived from Daniel 7:22. Among the Greek accounts, the one featuring Susanna was widely accepted in theology and Christian art.